The History of Isabela Province

Isabela is the largest province in Cagayan Valley and the second largest in the Philippines in terms of land area. It has an aggregate land area of 10,665 square kilometers, representing almost 40% of the regional territory of Cagayan Valley. It is bounded on the north by Cagayan, on the west by Kalinga, Mountain Province and Ifugao, on the south by Nueva Vizcaya, Quirino and Aurora, and on the east by the Philippine Sea. The province is divided into three physiographic areas: western, eastern, and coastal areas. The western area is a sprawling fertile valley hemmed by the Central Cordillera and is traversed by the Cagayan, Mallig, Siffu, Magat, Diadi, and Ganano Rivers. The eastern area is straddled by the rugged and forested Sierra Madre and is rich in manganese, iron, nickel, copper, and coal deposits. The coastal area is a small strip of land with 208-kilometer coastline and is home to beautiful caves, coves, bays, and rich marine life.

Isabela consists of 34 municipalities and three cities: Santiago, Cauayan, and Ilagan. Santiago City, the premier commercial center of Cagayan Valley, was declared an independent city on July 3, 1994. Cauayan City, the agro-industrial center of Cagayan Valley, was declared a component city on March 30, 2001. Ilagan City, the provincial capital, was declared a component city on August 11, 2012. Isabela has four congressional districts.

Based on the 2010 Census of Population and Housing, the province has a population of 1,489,645 with a population density of approximately 140 Isabelinos per square kilometer. With an average annual growth rate of 1.47%, the province is projected to have a population of around 1.6 million by the end of 2015.

Agriculture is the main industry in Isabela with corn, rice, and vegetables as the main produce. Isabela is the largest producer of corn in the Philippines and the largest corn processing plant in Southeast Asia is in the province. It is the second largest producer of rice in the country and has been dubbed as the "Rice Granary of the North." Moreover, it has been adjudged by the Department of Agriculture as the Most Outstanding Province in Food Security in the Gawad Sapat Ani Awards 2000. In 2011, Isabela is the only Northern Luzon province among the ten richest provinces in the country. Isabela is indeed the "Queen Province of the North."

CHAPTER I. THE PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD

The history of Isabela dates back over 25,000 years ago when the Aetas or Negritos came to the province through the land bridges that connected Luzon to mainland Asia. Their descendants presently live in certain parts of the mountains and forests of eastern Isabela.

The Austronesian ancestors of the Ibanags, Yogads, Gaddangs, Paranans (Dumagats), and other indigenous peoples of the valley built a civilization based on agriculture, fishing and hunting. They had art, culture and technology. They were organized around the fundamental political unit, the barangay headed by a chieftain. Some of the evidences of prehistoric agriculture in the valley include the stone tools and cultivation sites. Stone tools used probably in agriculture between 10,000 and 8,000 BC were discovered at neolithic archeological sites in Liwan (Rizal) and Lanna, Solana. In 1978, Richard Shutler and his team discovered direct evidence of early rice cultivations in Andarayan, Solana. The cultivation sites were dated from 1720 to 1380 BC.

The prehistoric art forms include ceramic pottery and big earthen jars used as coffins. Ceramic pots were excavated in Camalaniugan and are dated between 5 BC and 270 AD. The jar burial site in Cabarruan, Solana features the ancient tradition of taking care of the dead. The jar burial site also yielded slag or piece of metal that when analyzed showed positive indication that smelting took place at the site during the Metal Age, around 300 BC to 500 AD. Another site at Sitio Magwirig in Solana yielded a cast steel fragment. The latter evidence suggests refinement in iron technology.

Before the Spaniards came, Camalaniugan was already a flourishing community along the river. It was ruled by Datu Guiab. It had a system of government and culture. The people called themselves Ibanag, a word derived from banag, an Ibanag word that means river. Ibanag means “people living by the river.” The people were engaged in agriculture and fishing. They traded with Chinese, Japanese and other merchants from Asia. The Sung Dynasty traders came between 960 and 1279 AD while the Ming Dynasty traders between 1368 and early 1500 AD. Sung and Ming porcelain pieces are on display at the Cagayan Provincial Museum. Therefore, when the Spaniards came, there was already a complex society in Cagayan Valley that was anchored on market economy and was engaging in foreign trade.

CHAPTER II. THE SPANISH PERIOD

The Spaniards arrived in the late 16th century. In 1572, Spanish Conquistador Juan de Salcedo, the grandson of Governor-General Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, explored the northern coast of Luzon and landed at Cabacungan (now a barangay of Claveria) and at the mouth of the river in Massi (now Pamplona). He also explored Tular or Tulug (now Abulug), Aparri and Camalaniugan.

By 1574, Cagayan was already included in the map of Luzon. In his letter to King Felipe II dated July 30, 1574, Guido de Lavezares, the second Governor-General, enclosed a map of Luzon. He mentioned the coast and great river of Cagayan that is very near to China. He promised the king that they explore Cagayan and send a fuller description of it.

In 1581, Gonzalo Ronquillo de Peñaloza, the fourth Governor-General, sent Captain Juan Pablo Carreon, a native of Vizcaya, Spain, with 66 soldiers from Manila and 44 soldiers from Vigan, Ilocos to drive away a Japanese fleet of “trader-raiders” or pirates under the command of Taifusa. These Japanese indulged in trading or raiding as the opportunity offered. They had ravaged some settlements along the coast of Luzon before they invaded Cagayan. Carreon and his soldiers routed Taifusa’s men and the Japanese fled to Formosa (now Taiwan) and then to Japan in 1582. Carreon proceeded upriver to look for future pueblo or town sites. Carreon founded the Nueva Segovia in what is Lallo today.

In 1591, Gomez Perez Dasmariñas, the seventh Governor-General, ordered his son Luis Perez Dasmariñas to make an incursion into the interior of the island of Luzon. Luis Perez Dasmariñas was accompanied by three officers, 70 Spanish soldiers, two Augustinian missionaries, and more than 1,400 troops from Pampanga and Pangasinan. He crossed the Caraballo del Sur through the Balete Pass (now Dalton Pass) and reached Ytui or Ituy (upper Magat River valley). On July 15, 1591, he claimed the area in the name of King Felipe II. He followed Ytui or Ituy River (now Magat River) until he arrived at Nueva Segovia.

NUEVA SEGOVIA

Nueva Segovia was elevated to a city when it became the seat of the Diocese of Nueva Segovia. The diocese was created by the Bull of Pope Clement VIII on August 14, 1595. Bishop Miguel de Benavides, OP, the founder of the University of Santo Tomas, was elected as the first bishop of the diocese. Due to flooding and erosion caused by the Rio Grande de Cagayan, the seat was transferred to Vigan, Ilocos by Bishop Juan dela Fuentes de Yepes. The transfer was formally approved during the Pontificate of Pope Benedict XIV and during the reign of Fernando VI, King of Spain by virtue of the Royal Decree of September 7, 1758.

The Ciudad de Nueva Segovia was also chosen as the capital of La Provincia del Valle de Cagayan when the province was constituted in 1595. According to Father Francisco Rojano, the great chronicler of the province, Cagayan got its name from the Ilocano word carayan or river. However, present-day chroniclers say the name was derived from the word tagay, a tall hardwood tree that grows abundantly in the northern part of the province, and the place was called catagayan. Catagayan was later shortened to Cagayan.

The entire Cagayan Valley, from Nueva Vizcaya to Aparri, including the Batanes Islands, was one large province. It was an integral political unit with one alcalde-mayor. In 1603, Juan Clavijo was appointed Alcalde-Mayor of the province. The alcalde-mayor was the colonial chieftain at the provincial level. He exercised both executive and judicial powers, collected vandalas or tributes from the pueblos, and enjoyed the privilege of monopolizing commerce in the province. At the pueblo and barrio levels were the gobernadorcillo and the cabeza de barangay respectively. They were tasked to collect tributes and to enforce polo or free labor for timber cutting, brick quarrying, and construction of churches, public buildings, roads, bridges, forts, and even private houses.

Pititan (now part of Isabela) became an encomienda in 1596. The subjugated barangays were organized for the extraction of a form of taxation called tribute. This wide area of land was awarded to an encomendero in exchange for the services in the conquest of the indigenous people. The encomendero collected tributes, enforced polo or free labor, and recruited soldiers from the indigenous population. In 1608, Luis Enriquez, the encomendero of Pititan, was assassinated by the Gaddangs.

REVOLTS

Revolts broke out against the tribute, polo y servicio personal or forced labor, commercial monopolies, land grabbing, imposition of the Catholic faith, or other cruel practices of the colonial rulers, both lay and clerical. The first known revolt in the valley was the revolt of Magalat, chieftain of Tuguegarao, in 1596. Magalat led the people in opposing the tribute collection during the administration of Francisco de Tello de Guzman, the tenth Governor-General. He and his brother were detained in Manila. Some Dominican missionaries persuaded the Governor-General to let Magalat and his brother return to Cagayan with them. When they reached Cagayan, Magalat and his brother again incited rebellion with the help of other chieftains. The Governor-General sent the Maestro-de-Campo Pedro de Chaves with troops from Manila to stop the rebellion. Magalat was killed in his own house.

The other revolts happened in 1605 by the Irayas in Tuguegarao that resulted in the killing of encomenderos, in 1615 in Abuatan (now Bangay, Ilagan) and in Bolo (now Ilagan), in 1621 in Nueva Vizcaya, in 1627 in Cagayan by the people who resisted conversion, and in 1718 by the people of Malaueg (now Rizal) who revolted against the missionaries in Piat. In June 1625, Miguel Lanab and Alababan of Cagayan led the Isnegs in mutilating and beheading the Dominican Father Alonzo Garcia and Brother Onofre Palao. In 1718, Francisco Rivera led the people of Tuguegarao in attacking the Spaniards in Lallo where more than 50 men were killed. This uprising was stopped by Juan Pablo Orduña. In October 1718, Luis Magtangaga, chieftain of Malaueg (now Rizal), and Tomas Sinaguingan, chieftain of Tuao, led a force of around 3,000 Itawits and Irayas to force out the hated Alcalde-Mayor. This revolt failed.

On March 31, 1785, Lagutao and Baladdon led the revolt in Ituy and Paniqui. Ituy was the area of the upper Magat River valley (populated by the Isinais) now occupied by Santa Fe, Aritao, Dupax del Sur, Dupax del Norte, and Bambang. Paniqui was the area of the middle Magat River valley (populated by the Gaddangs) and Ganano River valley (populated by the Yogads). The middle Magat River valley is now occupied by Bayombong, Solano, Quezon, Bagabag, Villaverde, and Diadi. The Ganano River valley is now occupied by Cordon, Diffun, Cabarroguis, Saguday, Santiago City, San Isidro and Echague. Lagutao presented himself as the liberator from the Spanish impositions of the tobacco monopoly and the tribute. Many people from Angadanan (now Alicia) and Camarag (now Echague) abandoned their pueblos and followed Lagutao to the hills. As a counter-offensive, Mateo Cabal and his 300 men, reinforced by 2,000 auxiliaries from Bayombong, Bagabag, and Carig (now Santiago City), pursued Lagutao’s party, killed the leader, his brother and 13 others; and captured 81 followers.

Some revolts in nearby provinces spread to the valley like the revolt of Malong in 1660 that started in Pangasinan, and the revolt of Diego Silang in 1762-63 that started in Ilocos. The revolt in 1763 led by Dabo and Juan Marayag in Cabagan was influenced by Diego Silang. This revolt was suppressed by Lieutenant General Manuel Urrutia Arza, the Alcalde-Mayor of Cagayan, and his expeditionary troops strengthened by the addition of local troops.

MISSIONS

In spite of the revolts, the Spanish friars successfully introduced Catholicism to the indigenous peoples. In 1612, the Dominican friar Baltasar Fort reported that there were 11 missions in Cagayan. The missions were in Pata (now a barangay of Claveria), Tular, Potol, Camalaniugan, Nueva Segovia (now Lallo), Tocolana, Asiping (now Iguig), Piat, Malaueg (now Rizal), Tuguegarao, and Pititan.

The Dominicans established four mission communities in the Magat River valley: San Miguel (near Dupax) in 1633, Dangla in 1637, Tuhay in 1637, and Bagabag in 1637. In 1702, the Augustinian missionaries built a convent in Burbur, at the foot of the Caraballo Mountains in the present Santa Clara, Aritao.

By 1713, missions were already established in Carig (now Santiago City), Cordon, Diffun, and Santa Barbara de Lappao. By virtue of a Decree of Request promulgated on October 30, 1713, the inhabitants of the four communities were required to give rice and stipends to the missionaries.

The missionaries also helped in the construction of the road running from Asingan, Pangasinan to Aritao. The planning of the road was done by Father Manuel del Rio, a Dominican friar. Construction began in 1736 and was completed in 1739. This road was named Father Juan Villaverde Trail, after the friar who designed the pueblo of Lumabang (now Solano).

The Villaverde Trail was further developed in 1903. By 1906, the road was extended north from Bayombong to Cordon. The trail became the major route for travel and communications. Telegraph lines were moved from the old route through Balete Pass (now Dalton Pass), which was from San Jose, Nueva Ecija, to follow the Villaverde Trail.

CHURCHES

The church became the nucleus of every settlement. The oldest church in the valley, Lallo Church, was built in 1594. The churches in Pata (now a barangay of Claveria) and Tular or Tulug (now Abulug) were built in 1595. San Jacinto de Polonia Church in Camalaniugan was built in 1595, and its Santa Maria Bell, the oldest bell in the country, was forged in 1592. San Jacinto Ermita Church in Tuguegarao was built in 1604. Malaueg (now Rizal) Church was built in 1607. The image of Our Lady of Piat arrived in 1604 from Macau after the Spanish Dominican friars were expelled around 1589 from what was then Portuguese territory. The image was enshrined in a Basilica Minore that was completed in 1875.

San Pablo Church, the oldest church in Isabela, was built in 1624, and St. Rose of Lima Church in Gamu in 1726. The original Saint Dominic Cathedral in Bayombong was built in 1743. Six churches were also completed in 1743 in the pueblos of Cauayan, Appiat, Bagabag, Lappau (or Santa Barbara de Lappao), Daruyag, and Carig (now Santiago City).

Saint Matthias Church in Tumauini was built in 1753 and was completed in 1805. Saint Peter’s Cathedral in Tuguegarao was built in 1768, Dupax Church in 1776, Iguig Church in 1787, and Our Lady of Atocha Church in Alicia in 1849.

PUEBLOS

The Spanish authorities also organized a city and numerous pueblos initially along the Rio Grande de Cagayan, the principal route of travel. They replicated the successful policy of reduccion in the colonization of Latin America. They pressured the indigenous peoples to move to the pueblos from their traditional settlements and sacred grounds. The center of a pueblo was the church, making the people administratively and culturally more accessible. Ciudad de Nueva Segovia (now Lallo) was founded in 1581 by Captain Juan Pablo Carreon. Camalaniugan was established on June 15, 1595, Abulug in 1596, Tuguegarao on May 9, 1604, Tuao in 1604, Iguig on December 28, 1607 by Father Ambrocio dela Madre de Dios, OP, and Malaueg (now Rizal) in 1617.

Cabagan (Cabagan Viejo, now San Pablo), the oldest town in Isabela, was founded on November 30, 1646 by Father Pedro de Santos. Ilagan and Gamu were established in 1678 by Father Pedro Gimenez. Aparri was founded on May 11, 1690, Dupax on April 22, 1731 by Augustinian missionaries, Amulung on December 15, 1734, and Calanusian (now Cauayan City) in 1740. Carig (now Santiago City) was formally established on May 4, 1743, Bambang in 1747, Tumauini on May 7, 1751, and Camarag (now Echague) in 1752.

Lumabang (now Solano) was founded in 1767 by Father Alejandro Vidal, Fulay (now Alcala) on October 20, 1787, Pamplona in 1842 by Vicar Pedro Montenegro, Cabug (now Enrile) on January 20, 1849 by Dominican missionaries, Cabagan Nuevo in 1861, Diadi on May 22, 1872, Gattaran in 1877 by the Bishop of Nueva Segovia, Callering (now Reina Mercedes) on January 20, 1886, Sanchez Mira on September 14, 1894, Peñablanca and Cordoba (now Baggao) in 1896, and San Roque (now Naguilian) on November 27, 1896.

TOBACCO

Tobacco seeds from Cuba reached the Philippines toward the end of the 17th century through the Spanish galleon San Clemente. The Spanish friars then started to cultivate tobacco in the valley. Tobacco cultivation soon flourished because of the land and climate as favorable as those of Cuba’s.

The Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade declined in the late 18th century and eventually ended in 1815 due to the Mexican War of Independence. It was replaced by the more profitable export of crops such as tobacco, sugar, hemp and copra. The cultivation of tobacco spurred the agricultural expansion in the valley in the late 18th century.

On March 1, 1782, Jose Vargas Basco, the 44th Governor-General, imposed the tobacco monopoly, which meant the growing and selling of the crop were supervised by the government. The farmers were prohibited to cultivate their own crop and instead were forced to buy the product from government-run stores. Revolts against the monopoly broke out in 1785 led by Lagutao and many settlements were abandoned by those who wanted to continue cultivating tobacco. In 1797, the pueblo of Ilagan was authorized to cultivate tobacco for the monopoly. However, a Royal Decree in 1881 repealed the monopoly. The monopoly was completely abolished in 1884.

In 1881, Spanish cigar companies in Manila were united to establish the Tabacalera or Compania General de Tabacos de Filipinas. The Tabacalera bought three large haciendas in Isabela de Luzon: Hacienda San Antonio and Hacienda Santa Isabel in Ilagan, and Hacienda San Luis in Cauayan. The company became an exporter of cigar chiefly to China, Japan, United Kingdom, and Spain, and the most esteemed product was coming from Isabela de Luzon. The brand name La Flor de Isabela became synonymous to the best Philippine tobacco. Due to the increasing demand for Isabela de Luzon tobacco in both domestic and international markets, the Spanish government encouraged large-scale migration of Ilocanos from northwest Luzon to facilitate the expansion of tobacco cultivation.

ISABELA DE LUZON

On May 24, 1839, Luis Lardizabal, the 59th Governor-General, upon the advice of the Alcalde-Mayor of Cagayan, issued an order creating Nueva Vizcaya as a separate province. The order was approved by a Royal Decree on April 10, 1841. Pedro Menchaca was the first appointed Alcalde-Mayor of the province. The province comprised the region from Ilagan to the Caraballo del Sur including Catalangan along the Sierra Madre and Palanan that was detached from Nueva Ecija, with Camarag (now Echague) as its capital. The comandancia of Kiangan (now Kiangan, Mayaoyao, Banaue, and Lagawe) was established in 1841 and became a part of Nueva Vizcaya. In 1908, Kiangan was ceded to Mountain Province. Meanwhile, Cagayan comprised all the pueblos from Aparri to Tumauini. Its capital was transferred from Lallo to Tuguegarao.

On May 1, 1856, a Royal Decree created the Isabela de Luzon province during the administration of Antonio de Urbiztondo, the 64th Governor-General of the Philippines. The new province was named in honor of Her Royal Highness Queen Isabela II of Spain. The pueblos of Cabagan (Cabagan Viejo, now San Pablo) and Tumauini, the first capital town, were detached from Cagayan. The pueblos of Ilagan, Palanan, Gamu, Cauayan, Angadanan (now Alicia), Carig (now Santiago City), and Camarag (now Echague) including the comandancia of Binatangan (now Maddela and Nagtipunan) were all detached from Nueva Vizcaya. After the creation of the new province, the capital of Nueva Vizcaya was moved to Bayombong. In 1908, Binatangan was ceded to Nueva Vizcaya.

Cabagan (Cabagan Viejo, now San Pablo), from the Ibanag word baag or G-string, used to cover the area now occupied by San Pablo, Cabagan, Santa Maria, Santo Tomas and Maconacon. Tumauini, from the Ibanag name of a tree called mauini, used to cover the area now occupied by Tumauini, Divilacan, Delfin Albano and portion of Quezon.

Ilagan used to cover the area now occupied by Ilagan, portion of San Mariano, portion of Quirino, and portion of Mallig. Gamu used to cover the area now occupied by Gamu, Naguilian, Burgos, San Manuel, portion of Aurora, Roxas, and portion of Mallig.

Cauayan, from the Gaddang word cauayan or bamboo, used to cover the area now occupied by Cauayan City, Reina Mercedes, Luna, Cabatuan, portion of Aurora, and portion of San Mateo. Angadanan (now Alicia), from the name of Gaddang chieftain Gaddanan, used to cover the area now occupied by Alicia, Angadanan, and San Guillermo.

Carig used to cover the area now occupied by Santiago City, Cordon, Diffun, Saguday, Ramon, and portion of San Mateo. Camarag used to cover the area now occupied by Echague, San Isidro, Jones, San Agustin, portion of San Mariano, Dinapigue, Aglipay, Maddela, and Nagtipunan.

The vast plains of the province suitable for tobacco plantations attracted peoples from other parts of the country notably the northwest Luzon region. Migration began in the second half of the 19th century with the arrival of the Ilocanos who came in large numbers. This migration was caused by the mounting population pressure in the Ilocos provinces (Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur and La Union) whose regional population reached around 350,000 in 1850 and around 500,000 in 1876. The Ilocanos were dispersed to central Luzon provinces (Pangasinan, Tarlac, Zambales, Nueva Ecija, and Aurora), Manila and Cagayan Valley. Due to the Ilocano Diaspora, the regional population of the Ilocos provinces stood around 504,000 in 1903. The diaspora continued in 1906 when Ilocanos started to migrate to Hawaii and California, and in 1938 to Mindanao.

CHAPTER III. THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD

The Philippine Revolution of 1896 asserted the sovereignty of the Filipino people, the protection and promotion of civil liberties, the confiscation of the friar estates or haciendas, and the separation of church and state.

Andres Bonifacio, the Father of the Revolution, secretly founded the Kataastaasang Kagalang-galang na Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (Katipunan) in Tondo, Manila on July 7, 1892, immediately after the arrest of Jose Rizal. The Cry of Balintawak on August 24, 1896, when the Katipuneros tore to pieces their personal cedulas, indicated the start of armed warfare.

In May 1898, the Filipino revolutionary forces encircled on land the colonial seat of power, Intramuros, while the United States (US) naval fleet stood guard in Manila Bay. The revolutionaries took the policy of laying siege to starve the enemy into surrender. On June 12, 1898, President Emilio Aguinaldo made the proclamation of independence in Kawit, Cavite.

On August 25, 1898, the expeditionary force composed of 2,000 men armed with rifles under Colonel Daniel Tirona arrived in Aparri on board the Filipinas, the flagship of the Philippine Navy. Colonel Tirona was accompanied by Colonel Simeon Villa and Colonel J. N. Leyba. The group captured the Alcalde-Mayor of Ilocos Norte, Bishop Jose Hevia Campomanes and other friars who had fled from Vigan, Ilocos Sur and made Saint Philomene Church in Alcala their hideout. The group also imprisoned other friars in Lallo. Tirona was promoted by President Aguinaldo to the rank of General as a reward. Colonel Leyba and his troops entered Tuguegarao on August 30, 1898. The group captured, imprisoned and tortured the friars. This was done with the purpose of extorting money from them. In September 1898, General Daniel Tirona ordered the holding of the first election in Cagayan. Vicente Siriban Nepomuceno assumed the position of Jefe (Chief) Provincial of Cagayan by virtue of the election.

Isabela de Luzon was taken without resistance on September 12, 1898. Colonel Villa and his troops entered Cabagan Viejo (now San Pablo) and assaulted Father Segundo Rodriguez. The following day, Colonel Villa and Colonel Leyba tortured Father Deogracias Garcia, the friar of Cabagan Nuevo (now Cabagan). On September 14, 1898, Colonel Villa arrived at Tumauini and gave Father Blanco a dreadful beating. The followers of Colonel Villa had also beaten Father Bonet. Colonel Villa entered Ilagan on September 15, 1898 at 8:00 PM. He tortured Father Domingo Campo and another friar. Meanwhile, the houses of Spaniards and the shops of the Chinese merchants were sacked. Numerous girls and women were raped.

Colonel Leyba continued his march to Gamu on September 18, 1898. He tortured Father Venancio, Father Gregorio Cabrero, Father Sabanda, and lay brother Venancio Aguinaco. On the next day, he sent a captain to Reina Mercedes to maltreat Father Miguel Garcia. On the following day, he sent five soldiers to Cauayan to inflict pain and suffering on Father Perez and Father Aguirrezabal. On September 22, 1898, he entered Echague and injured Father Mata.

The authorities in the province of Nueva Vizcaya surrendered to the revolutionary forces on September 15, 1898. Colonel Leyba arrived at Solano on the afternoon of September 25, 1898. He extorted money from five friars and then abused them physically. On that same day, he went to Bayombong and found Alcalde-Mayor Perez of Isabela de Luzon. He compelled the Alcalde-Mayor to go back to Ilagan. He summoned the friars of Bayombong and then tortured them. Alcalde-Mayor Perez arrived in Ilagan on October 2, 1898. Colonel Villa and ten soldiers proceeded to harass him physically.

The civil government in Isabela de Luzon was established in December 1898. The election was held on December 9, 1898, and Dimas Guzman was chosen as the Jefe (Chief) Provincial. In Nueva Vizcaya, Sebastian Panganiban was elected as the Jefe (Chief) Provincial.

CHAPTER IV. THE AMERICAN PERIOD

The Revolutionary Government that was established on June 23, 1898 transferred its headquarters from Kawit, Cavite to Malolos, Bulacan in September 1898. The Malolos Congress was held on September 15, 1898 at Barasoain Church to write the constitution of the First Philippine Republic. Out of the 193 delegates, three were from Isabela de Luzon. They were Eustacio del Rosario, Abelardo Guzman and Raymundo Alindada. The other delegates from Cagayan Valley were Pablo Tecson, Anastacio Francisco and Vicente Guzman from Cagayan; Isidro Paredes and Juan Villamor from Nueva Vizcaya; and Jose Alejandrino and Marcelino Santos from Batanes.

The attempts of the government of President Emilio Aguinaldo to assert the sovereign rights of the Filipino people abroad through diplomacy proved to be fruitless. Spain still ceded the entire Philippines to the United States through the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898. The US paid 20 million dollars to Spain. On December 21, 1898, US President William McKinley issued the Proclamation of Benevolent Assimilation to declare a war of aggression against the Filipino people. As early as May 19, 1898, the US President had already issued orders to effect the military occupation of the Philippines.

On February 4, 1899, US troops made a surprise attack on the Filipino revolutionary forces in the vicinity of Manila. At least 3,000 Filipinos were killed. This started the armed hostilities between the US troops and the Filipino people. In Malolos, after learning of the outbreak of hostilities, President Aguinaldo announced that peace and friendly relations between the Filipinos and the US troops had been broken.

The American troops forced the Aguinaldo government to retreat. President Aguinaldo moved his military headquarters to Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija on May 9, 1899, then to Bamban, Tarlac on June 6, 1899, then to Bayambang, Pangasinan on November 10, 1899. From November 13, 1899, he and his party moved from place to place. He planned to cross the Villaverde Trail and proceed to Bayombong. But the US troops under General Lawton pushed into Nueva Vizcaya on November 21 through Balete Pass (now Dalton Pass). On November 23, President Aguinaldo finally decided against going to Bayombong.

President Aguinaldo and his party escaped the US troops by avoiding the coastal pueblos of La Union and Ilocos Sur. They moved east climbing the 1,300 meter-high Mount Tirad, then to Bontoc, and then on to Cagayan. They had a brief break at Maddarulug, Cabug (now Enrile).

Meanwhile, Captain Batchelor marched practically unopposed through the provinces of Nueva Vizcaya, Isabela de Luzon, and Cagayan with one battalion of American Negro troops. The US troops met resistance from the Filipino forces only in Diadi. The US troops entered Tuguegarao on December 12, 1899. On the following day, General Tirona and his soldiers surrendered to the US troops in Aparri.

President Emilio Aguinaldo arrived at Aggub, Cabagan Nuevo (now Cabagan) on May 29, 1900. He ordered stepped up guerrilla attacks of the US troops stationed in the town and in the neighboring towns. He and his party made camp at Tierra Virgen, east of Cauayan, in June 1900. He decided to leave for Palanan on August 27, 1900 due to reports of imminent enemy attacks. He reached Palanan on September 6, 1900. He was accompanied by Colonel Simeon Villa, the military commander of Isabela de Luzon who became his chief-of-staff, and seventeen soldiers. They settled in the poblacion and the Paranans, the indigenous people in the area, supplied them with food.

Isabela de Luzon provided refuge and aid to the followers of President Emilio Aguinaldo between 1900 to 1901. For six months, Aguinaldo and his party made their headquarters at Palanan, the last capital of the First Philippine Republic. On March 23, 1901, Aguinaldo was captured by US troops led by General Frederick Funston, ending the existence of the First Philippine Republic. But the guerilla warfare lasted until 1906.

Manuel Tomines, a former revolutionary officer, organized a resistance group in Isabela de Luzon. He had been commissioned by General Artemio Ricarte. He was instructed to lead an uprising in Cagayan Valley. He was sentenced to death and hanged on April 10, 1905.

The Filipino-American War caused the death of more than 250,000 Filipinos as a direct and indirect result of the hostilities.

CIVIL GOVERNMENT

The second Philippine Commission led by William Howard Taft arrived in Manila on June 3, 1900. The Taft Commission was tasked to establish civil government in the country. It started its legislative functions on September 1, 1900. Among the laws it enacted were those for the appointment of officers in the executive branch; those that appropriated funds for the construction and repair of roads, bridges and highways; the establishment of a public school system; and the hearing of the friar estates or haciendas issue.

The Americans found that most of the towns had secretly organized complete municipal governments that continued to campaign for independence. Local governments were thus completely reorganized to reduce mass support for the guerrillas. Isabela was reorganized on August 24, 1901. But due to the resistance of the people of Isabela de Luzon to the new colonizers, the province was the last one that held the municipal elections in 1907. Rafael Maramag became the first governor. The privilege of suffrage in the municipal elections was limited to the local elite.

SCHOOLS AND THE PROTESTANTS

Between 1901 and 1902, more than 1,000 American teachers, known as “Thomasites” for the S.S. Thomas, fanned out across the archipelago to open public schools. S.S. Thomas was the steam ship that transported the original groups to the Philippines. The teachers introduced the English language as the medium of instruction. Most of them were Protestants.

The Protestants held their first service in the Philippines on August 28, 1898. The service was officiated by Chaplain George Stull, a member of The Methodist Episcopal Church, who came with the US troops. The service was also attended by Filipinos.

The Methodists were not the only Protestant group who began evangelistic work in the country. The other groups were the Baptists, the Presbyterians, the Congregationalists, the United Brethren, the Disciples of Christ, the Christian and Missionary Alliance, the Seventh Day Adventists, and the Episcopalians. On April 26, 1901, the Evangelical Union was formed to promote cooperation among the denominations. The Philippines was territorially divided among the denominations. The Methodist missionaries were assigned the provinces of Bulacan, Pampanga, Bataan, Zambales, Tarlac, Pangasinan, La Union, southern Ilocos Sur, Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya, Isabela, and Cagayan.

Dr. and Mrs. Ernest S. Lyons pioneered the evangelistic work in Cagayan Valley. Dr. Lyons later became the Presiding Elder of the Northern District. Among the first Filipino preachers from the valley were Isidro Panlasigui, Tomas Altamero and Filomeno Galang. The Methodist missionaries also established several schools in the valley such as the Eveland Memorial Academy (now Eveland Junior College) in San Mateo in 1947, Thoburn Memorial Academy in Sanchez Mira in 1945, Northern Philippines Academy in Gattaran in 1946, and Aldersgate College in Solano in 1965.

LAND DISTRIBUTION

The Americans announced the break-up of the friar estates or haciendas and their eventual redistribution to their tenants. In 1903, the government bought a total of 166,000 hectares of these estates. But the objective of redistributing these lands to the peasants was never seriously implemented. These lands were instead sold to big landlords and to some American officials and businessmen.

The Philippine Commission set up a procedure for the acquisition by landowners of Torrens titles to their property. However, poverty and ignorance prevented small farmers from protecting their property by acquiring the necessary land titles. On the other hand, landlords were able to legalize their claims even through fraudulent surveys and other means.

In the early part of the 20th century, the American Administration encouraged the cultivation of uncultivated lowlands through the Homesteading Program, where an individual could acquire 24 hectares of land. Homesteads were opened along the upper Cagayan River between Ilagan and Echague. By 1903, almost 25,000 Ilocano settlers from northwest and central Luzon resided in the area out of the almost 50,000 Ilocanos who migrated to Cagayan Valley.

In 1938, President Manuel L. Quezon launched his Social Justice Program as a solution to social imbalances and land maldistribution. He opened homestead areas in Cagayan, Isabela and Koronadal Valley in Mindanao. To oversee the development of these areas, the National Land Settlement Administration (NLSA) and the National Housing Commission were created.

President Quezon declared the western part of the province as a resettlement area, known as the Mallig Plains Resettlement Area. Homesteads were opened in Olango (now Mallig) and Vira (now Roxas), both barrios of Gamu. This second homestead program encouraged further the migration of Ilocano settlers from northwest and central Luzon. The other migrants were the Tagalogs, the Pangasinans, and the Pampangos.

It was during the American Period when rice became the dominant crop of the province replacing corn and tobacco. This was the result of the conversion of the uncultivated lowlands into rice fields.

Due to increasing population, new municipalities were created during the American Period. Jones, named after William Jones, the author of the Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916, was separated from Echague on January 1, 1921. Aurora, formerly called Dallig, was separated from Gamu on August 27, 1927. San Mariano, formerly called Angela, was separated from Ilagan on December 7, 1927. Cordon was separated from Santiago on July 1, 1939.

WORLD WAR II

The first Japanese invaders went ashore on Batanes at dawn of December 8, 1941. The combat troops quickly seized the airfield near Basco. The Japanese Imperial Army bomber planes struck Tuguegarao about 9:30 AM on December 8, 1941, 7 hours after Pearl Harbor, Hawaii was attacked.

In the first light of dawn, December 10, 1941, 3,000 men of the Tanaka Detachment in Batanes made the trip to shore. They successfully landed at Aparri and Gonzaga. By evening, they occupied Camalaniugan. Early the next morning, they began to march south toward Tuguegarao. By the dawn of December 12, they reached Tuguegarao.

General Jonathan Wainwright, the North Luzon Force commander, decided not to offer any opposition to the Tanaka Detachment. He believed that a battalion at Balete Pass (now Dalton Pass) could stop the Japanese forces. General Douglas MacArthur, the commanding general of the US Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE), issued orders to destroy bridges in the valley and to establish a block at Balete Pass (now Dalton Pass).

The Japanese poured in their troops on December 22, 1941 after acquiring complete control of the skies over the Philippines. On December 23, General MacArthur decided to withdraw to Bataan and fight a delaying action until help could arrive. He intended to concentrate his army in Bataan and to move his headquarters and the Commonwealth Government to Corregidor and declare Manila an open city.

On December 24, 1941, President Manuel L. Quezon was evacuated to Australia and the US. He died of complications caused by tuberculosis on August 1, 1944 at Saranac Lake, New York.

As months passed by, the help expected by General MacArthur seemed impossible. The US and Great Britain has already agreed on the “Europe First Policy.” The effect of this policy on the Bataan defenders was partial demoralization due to lack of food, medicine, arms, and ammunitions. So on March 11, 1942, General MacArthur left Corregidor for Australia. He was succeeded by General Wainright. On April 9, 1942, some 78,000 of the forces in Bataan led by General Edward P. King surrendered. In the morning of May 6, General Wainright surrendered in Corregidor.

When the Japanese Imperial Army invaded the country in December 1941, Jones became a shelter for some national and provincial officials, and other evacuees until 1942. Likewise, the town became the seat of the Provincial Government from 1941 to 1942. It was subsequently occupied by the Japanese forces after the Fall of Bataan and Corregidor.

Three years later, the Americans returned and prepared to invade Luzon. They landed at Leyte on October 20, 1944 and entered Manila on February 3, 1945.

General Tomoyuki Yamashita decided to withdraw from Manila into the mountains of Northern Luzon. The Japanese forces fortified the Balete Pass (now Dalton Pass). For three months, the American and Filipino forces fought bitterly for control of the pass. After the Americans won control of the pass, it was renamed Dalton Pass after an American general who died in the battle.

General Yamashita established a stronghold at Mount Napulawan near Hungduan. Finally, on September 3, 1945, he and his 16,000 forces surrendered to Captain Grisham at Kiangan. He was later flown to Camp John Hay in Baguio City.

CHAPTER V. AFTER INDEPENDENCE

The Philippine independence was finally granted by the United States on July 4, 1946. But the country was faced with many problems such as ruined farms and industries, destroyed towns and cities, and almost empty treasury. There was a need to rehabilitate agriculture, trade, and industry. Schools should be reopened, health centers reestablished, and homes rebuilt. So President Manuel A. Roxas established the Rehabilitation Finance Corporation capitalized at 300 million Pesos to jumpstart the economy.

In 1952, the government came up with the controversial Robert Hardie Report. It contained three recommendations: the abolition of the share tenancy, the establishment of owner-operated family-sized farms as the basis of the rural economy, and the establishment of fair tenancy practices for those who unavoidably continue to work on the land as tenants. Unfortunately, these recommendations were not adopted by the Quirino Administration. President Elpidio R. Quirino instead preferred the land resettlement program through the creation of the Land Settlement and Development Corporation (LASEDECO).

President Quirino proclaimed the forestland now occupied by Angadanan and San Guillermo as a settlement area on February 11, 1953. By virtue of Proclamation Number 368 for the Economic Development Corporation (EDCOR) under the administration of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP), 8,920 hectares of forestland inhabited by the Negritos were reserved for the settlement project. President Quirino’s economic program included the stabilization of the agricultural sector. During his term, irrigation systems were developed and expanded to help farmers increase production, and farm-to-market roads were built to help farmers bring their products to the market.

More municipalities were created after World War II. Roxas, formerly called Vira, was separated from Gamu on July 1, 1948. Santo Tomas was separated from Cabagan on July 1, 1949. Luna, formerly called Antatet, was separated from Cauayan on September 28, 1949. Mallig, formerly called Olango, was separated from Tumauini, Ilagan, and Gamu on April 8, 1952. Angadanan was created as a municipality on February 11, 1953. San Manuel, formerly called Callang, was separated from Roxas on June 23, 1957. Quezon was separated from Mallig on June 1, 1959. Ramon was created on June 18, 1961. San Guillermo, formerly called Peredo Edcor, was separated from Angadanan on June 17, 1967. The coastal towns of Maconacon, Divilacan, and Dinapigue were created by virtue of Republic Act 5776 enacted on June 21, 1969. Maconacon was separated from Cabagan. Divilacan was separated from Tumauini. Dinapigue was separated from Echague.

COLLEGES

Many institutions of higher learning were established after the World War II. These include the Saint Mary’s College (now Saint Mary’s University) in Bayombong in 1947, the La Salette College (now University of La Salette) in Santiago City in 1952, the Nueva Vizcaya School of Arts and Trades (NVSAT) in Bambang in 1957, and the Nueva Vizcaya Agricultural College (NVAC) in Bayombong in 1964. NVAC became Nueva Vizcaya State Institute of Technology (NVSIT) in 1973, while NVSAT became Nueva Vizcaya State Polytechnic College (NVSPC) in 1983. In 2004, NVSIT and NVSPC were merged to become Nueva Vizcaya State University (NVSU).  Isabela State University was established as a university in 1978.

CHAPTER VI. THE MARTIAL LAW PERIOD

President Ferdinand E. Marcos regionalized the government for the sake of better administration and delivery of social services to the people. He formed 12 administrative regions including Cagayan Valley region. This region was originally composed of the provinces of Batanes, Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, Kalinga-Apayao, Ifugao, and the sub-province of Quirino. Kalinga-Apayao and Ifugao were created from the division of the Mountain Province in 1966. Quirino became a regular province on September 10, 1971.

A State of Martial Law was proclaimed on September 21, 1972 partly due to some incidents that happened in Isabela. The first one was the attack of the command post of Task Force LAWIN in Isabela by a well-armed group of New People’s Army (NPA) trained by Lieutenant Victor Corpus on August 26, 1971. The second one was the bringing of substantial war materials consisting of military hardware and supplies through the MV Karagatan at Digoyo Point, Palanan starting in May 1972. These war materials consisted of M-14 rifles, 40 mm rocket launchers, 80 mm rockets and ammunitions, and other combat paraphernalia. Many of these military hardware and supplies went to the NPA.

The third incident was the capture of a document entitled “REGIONAL PROGRAM OF ACTION 1972” at Taringsing, Cordon on June 18, 1972. This document was prepared by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP) to be carried out as part of the overall plan of the party to foment discontent and precipitate the tide of nationwide mass revolution. This action plan included the establishment of provisional provincial revolutionary governments with the support of the masses.

After the proclamation of Martial Law, many dissident leaders opposing President Marcos were captured. They were charged with subversion and rebellion in the military tribunals. The record of the Marcos regime on the issue of human rights violations was highly deplorable due to numerous disappearances and killings.

The Marcos dictatorship caused the dislocation of more than 50,000 Isabelinos in the forest region of eastern Isabela when their farms and homes were declared as “no man’s lands.”

Isabela experienced a construction boom during the Martial Law years. Among the infrastructures constructed were roads, bridges, irrigation system, and housing projects. The Pan-Philippines Highway from Cagayan to Mindanao was constructed, including the Naguilian and Gamu bridges. The Magat High Dam and Hydroelectric Power Plant was built for irrigation and power generation. It was built at a cost of 3.5 billion Pesos and its reservoir area was 4,460 hectares, making it the biggest dam project in Asia at the time of its construction. It is capable of irrigating 102,000 hectares of agricultural land. It has an ultimate capacity of 540 megawatts that is sufficient to supply the whole of Northern Luzon Grid.

President Marcos called for an election on May 14, 1984 for the National Assembly. The three Assemblymen from Isabela were Rodolfo Albano from Cabagan, Simplicio Domingo from Mallig Region, and Prospero Bello from Jones. In the Snap Elections held on February 7, 1986, President Marcos won over Corazon Aquino in Isabela.

The first free elections after EDSA Revolution were held on the second Monday of May 1987 for the members of the Congress. Among the 24 Senators, two were from Cagayan Valley: Heherson Alvarez from Isabela and Juan Ponce Enrile from Cagayan.

CHAPTER VII. THE DYNASTY

Isabela was under the administration of the Dy family from 1972 to 2004. Faustino N. Dy, Sr., known as Lakay Tino, started his political career in 1961 as Cauayan Municipal Councilor. He served as the Mayor of Cauayan from 1964 to 1972, and as the Governor of Isabela from 1972 to 1986.

In 1979, Governor Faustino N. Dy, Sr. and his business partner Eduardo “Danding” Cojuangco, Jr. planned to turn Hacienda Santa Isabel and Hacienda San Antonio, with a total area of 14,000 hectares, into an agribusiness empire. Peasants marched to the Provincial Capitol several times. They finally showed their disgust in 1981 when they boycotted the Presidential Elections. As a result, President Marcos declared the two haciendas as land reform areas in the following year.

Governor Dy, Sr. was again elected as Governor in 1988. He defeated Noli Siquian. In 1991, he banned a national newspaper and several local reporters when an exposé about the Dy family’s control on logging in Cagayan Valley gained prominence in the print media. This exposé was publicized by the Cagayan Anti-Logging Movement (CALM), the Save the Sierra Madre Movement (SSMM), and the Roman Catholic Church.

Governor Dy, Sr. retired in 1992 and gave way to his son Benjamin who won the gubernatorial seat. He died in October 1993. Meanwhile, in the synchronized national and local elections in 1992, his business partner and Presidential Candidate Eduardo “Danding” Cojuangco, Jr. won in Isabela.

Benjamin G. Dy served as the Governor of Isabela for three terms from 1992 to 2001. He defeated Edwin Uy in 1992, Silvestre Bello III in 1995, and Noli Siquian in 1998.  In 1995, Governor Benjamin G. Dy and Congressman Rodolfo Albano of the First District planned to divide the province. A bill was passed legislating that Isabela be divided into two new provinces: Isabela del Norte and Isabela del Sur. A referendum was held on the same year with a strong majority voted not to divide the province.

In 2001, Faustino S. Dy, Jr. was elected as the Governor. He served as the Representative of the Second District for three terms from 1992 to 2001 before he ran for Governor. When he was Congressman, he protected the family’s interest in logging when he occupied the vice chairmanship of the House of Representatives Committee on Environment and Natural Resources.

In 2001, Governor Dy, Jr. and business partner Eduardo “Danding” Cojuangco, Jr., San Miguel Corporation Chair, planned to convert about 150,000 hectares of land into a cassava plantation. The Corn-Cassava Production Processing and Marketing Project was planned to utilize an initial area of 29,039 hectares in the municipalities of Quezon, Mallig, Quirino, Delfin Albano, Santo Tomas, Santa Maria, and Cabagan. Some 4,000 farmers from the area became members of the Valley Planters Development Cooperative, Inc. (VAPDECO). On November 7, 2001, a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) for the project implementation was signed by the Provincial Government of Isabela, the Department of Agriculture, VAPDECO, the Land Bank of the Philippines, and San Miguel Corporation (SMC).

The Land Bank would provide loans in the form of production facilities and materials. SMC would build processing plants for cassava and corn products. To meet the electricity needs of the SMC processing plants, a 150-megawatt coal-fired thermal power plant would be constructed in Cauayan. The coal would be mined from the boundaries of Cauayan, Benito Soliven, and Naguilian. An estimated 28 million metric tons of recoverable coal deposit classified as lignite was discovered in the area in 1975.

The development projects of Governor Dy, Jr. infuriated some peasant groups, environmentalists, and the Roman Catholic Church who viewed these projects as means of massive land grabbing.  In the 2004 elections, Governor Dy, Jr. ran for re-election but was defeated by Maria Gracia Cielo Padaca.

Maria Gracia Cielo Padaca was a well-respected media personality. Known as Bombo Grace, she worked as a radio commentator of Bombo Radyo DZNC from 1986 to 2000. During the administration of President Joseph “Erap” Estrada, she resigned from Bombo Radyo DZNC and worked at the Commission on Audit for one year. She was assigned at the Cauayan Branch of the Government Service Insurance System (GSIS).

In the 2001 elections, Grace Padaca ran as a Congressional Candidate of the Third District against Faustino “Bodjie” G. Dy III. The election returns showed that Padaca won in five of the eight towns. But Dy III was declared the winner. Padaca filed a case against Dy III at the House of Representatives Electoral Tribunal (HRET). The recounting needed 850,000 Pesos. But Padaca was able to raise as much as 650,000 Pesos. The Tribunal declared Dy III as the winner by 48 votes in its decision released on December 18, 2003. The members of the Tribunal did not count the 150 “Grace” votes because they asserted that the alias of Padaca was “Bombo Grace.” While waiting for the decision, Padaca worked as an accountant for Enrique Zobel’s provincial office in Batangas from May 2003 to February 2004.

In February 2004, Padaca announced that she was running for Governor against Faustino S. Dy, Jr., the incumbent Governor. After the May 10 elections, she won by 44,292 votes after garnering 242,995 votes against 198,703 for Governor Dy, Jr. from 35 municipalities and one city. But her proclamation was stopped after Rufino Javier and Virgilio Garcillano of the First Division of the Commission on Elections (COMELEC) issued Temporary Restraining Order (TRO) on May 22, 2004 upon the petition of her opponent. Governor Dy, Jr. accused Padaca of allegedly being a candidate of the NPA.

Earlier, the lawyers of Governor Dy, Jr. caused the delay of the provincial canvass by moving to have the elections declared as a failure in at least three towns including San Mariano and Jones due to the explosions that partially razed the Municipal Halls of the two towns. The canvass was likewise delayed when the returns from Cordon were charged of manipulated results. The canvass was suspended after Rey Duma, the acting Provincial Election Supervisor, and Schools Division Superintendent Benito Tumamao, the Secretary of the Provincial Canvassing Board, resigned for various reasons.

On June 7, 2004, the COMELEC First Division composed of Resurreccion Borra, Rufino Javier, and Virgilio Garcillano, admitting it erred, reversed itself and lifted the May 22 TRO. This paved the way for Padaca’s proclamation at the COMELEC Central Office in Intramuros, Manila.

Governor Padaca was reelected in 2007. However, in the 2010 elections, she was defeated by Faustino G. Dy III, who again won in 2013 and in 2016.

CHAPTER VIII. NATIONAL URBANIZATION

Isabela is currently benefiting from the urbanization movement that is sweeping many parts of the country. Manila-based businesses such as retailers, food chains, and real estate developers are expanding in Isabela to compete with the local enterprises. In 2014, SM Prime Holdings, Incorporated opened its first SM Mall in Cagayan Valley in Cauayan City. In the same year, Robinsons Land Corporation opened its first Robinsons Mall in Cagayan Valley in Santiago City. The malls and real estate developments are catalyzing the urbanization of the province.

To be updated...

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